Antibiotic-resistant bacteria Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria - Essay Example The problems that exist in the available data for ABR is the fact that the reported cases are just approximations as given by various national summary tables which are able to give only a rough estimate of the real burden of illness. Thus there is no great precision in these figures and the real number of infections and deaths are therefore definitely higher than the figures provided. This problem can be overcome by doing studies in limited settings such a single hospital or a cluster of hospitals where the actual figures are taken (WHO, 2014). Resistance can be tackled by using antibiotics only on prescription by a certified health practitioner, completing full treatment dose, even after healing and avoiding sharing of antibiotics with other people or taking leftover prescriptions. The methods that have little impact are the ones that are single and isolated interventions such as prescription and dispensation of the right drugs without much education to the patient. These studies lack accuracy since the data used is only estimates. An appropriate study should be done in a limited setting and should be conclusive taking into account the cost and specific type of resistance witnessed and by what particular bacteria (WHO,

The Issue of Automation in Business Practices Research Paper

The Issue of Automation in Business Practices - Research Paper Example   Allen (2001) looks critically at the disadvantages of manual processes. The main demerit of undertaking business operations manually is that it is time-consuming and wastes organizational resources. Take for instance; a highly automated factory can achieve a higher amount of production within a set timeframe compared with when the processes are undertaken manually. Process automation also encourages organizations to reduce the number of workers and subsequently cut the cost of operation. The undeniable fact is that any organization that carries out most of its operations manually can hardly attain the state 2 of cost-efficiency (Allen, 2001). This is because the organization’s limited resources would be squandered on paying wages and maintaining the large number of employees hired to do the long manual processes. The good news is that every step in a business operation can be automated with the use of applicable technology and software for better efficiency. In a big corpo ration or networked organization, it is helpful to implement Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) as a system of coordinating all the sections of operations within an organization through the use of software that necessitate swift communication and higher performance among these sections in real-time (Allen, 2001). Automating with ERP helps organization to cut down the number of human personnel required for a job and eliminate cumbersomeness that often affects human activities within an organization. Most proponents of ERP believe that the system provide a unique opportunity for employees of an organization to harness their potentials in a speedy manner while attending to the goals of their organization. And automation is the backbone on which ERP depends on for successful implementation. 2.2 Value-Added Functionality Automating a process or a set of processes undoubtedly increases the value of the output of such processes. Corcoran et al. (2010) believe that automation affords organi zations the benefits of fastness, sustainability and quantifiable outcomes. In other words, when an operation is automated, it increases the added value to the output in a way of quick delivery and better presentation in environmentally friendly nature that would lead 3 to the output being well accepted by consumers. For example, consumers are likely going to show more interest in organizations that offer quick services and products. Though, how much value automation adds to the quality of a service or product is still an ongoing debate. Bannerman (2008) opines that even though an organization enjoys process improvement, this does not necessarily mean that it will lead to business improvement for the organization. However, Allen (2001) states that improved business operations are likely going to add to the value of the goods and services offered by the concerned organization.  Ã‚  

Impact of Latest Little Ice Age on Human Population

Impact of Latest Little Ice Age on Human Population William Lee Nowadays, the presence of Ice Ages which refer to the periodic long-term reduction in temperature of Earth’s surface and atmosphere, is well-known among people. However, most of them never heard of how another kind of geographical phenomenon, Little Ice Age (LIA), occurring from the fourteenth to the nineteenth centuries, influenced our culture, technology and our world today. Can you imagine how our lifestyle would be influenced? Can you imagine how the world would be totally different if it had never suffered from the LIA? This essay will discuss about what the LIA brought to our ancient ancestors and how it affected the world today. Let’s see what is meant by LIA. Distinct from the ice age, which refers to the long-term alternations between glacial periods and interglacial periods lasting for millions of years, the little ice age is another geographical terminology used to describe a pre-modern time period starting roughly from the 14th century, lasting until 19th century. During the LIA, the Earth was chilled by a sudden cooling and the average temperature of the Earth’s surface and atmosphere decreased by 2 degree centigrade than before. This enormous change was usually considered as the effect of solar activity variation (Lesley M. Smith,1997) and the relative position of Earth while rotating around the sun (John A. Eddy,1976). Some new researches also suggest other causes for the LIA, such as increased volcanic activity (Jonathan Cowie, 2007), or altered ocean current flows (Broecker WS, 2000). Due to the relatively higher latitude of land in the north hemisphere, the LIA had a predominant influence on the Eurasia continent rather than others. Meanwhile, most of human civilizations were gathering on the Old Continent. Reasonably the unexpected visit of this drastic change on climate affected human activities in such a complex way that is not easy to tell. However, we do can find some clues and records remained in the history, which can help us figure out the complicated process of change gradually. In order to analysis the impact of the LIA easily, we can try to make a clear image of human cultures by summarizing the status of every civilizations including empires, realms, kingdoms and independent regions existing during this period. At the beginning of 14th century, the Mongol Horde just invaded European countries and at the same time, China in the eastern world had been, for the first time, under foreign rule of Mongolian for already several decades. The Hundred Year’s War was just about to start and Italy was leading Europe to step into the period of Renaissance. A new dynasty called Ming arose after Chinese people stood up to fight against the cruel foreign rulers and in the next three hundred years, the prolonged war fire on the land of China finally came into a short time of peace. In fact, a storm was approaching silently, like the volcano hidden under the sea, it would erupt at any moment†¦Black Death killed a third of population in Europe. Russian and Norse begun to explore new lands†¦ In the fifteenth century, as Constantinople, the pivot on the way to the East, fell to the emerging Ottoman Turks, Western Europeans had to find a new trade route. The forthcoming Age of Sail allows Spanish and Portuguese explorers led to the first European sightings of the New Land (America and other virgin islands) and the sea passage along Cape of Good Hope to India. Then in the sixteenth century, thanks to the Queen Victoria, Britain became a super power on which† the sun never set†, and began to expand its territory all over the world. The Era of Colonization came with spread of culture, disease, thoughts, technology†¦ A peak of chilling little ice age came in the beginning of seventeenth century. The production of crops kept in a low level due to the persistent low temperature. Ming Dynasty collapsed under a series of peasants uprisings. Revolutions for independence or freedom of thought dominated the eighteenth century. And then Industrial Revolution accelerated the world into thrive. Now we have already got a rough image about the corresponding history. But still, how is these historical events linked with the LIA? Here is an example illustrating the LIA’s impact on agricultures. Since the beginning of fourteenth century, the cold weather and heavy storms swept Europe. Crops and livestock were enormously destroyed. Crises arose as political struggles and class warfare weakened those previously prosperous countries. Millions of people starved to death. Cannibalism was even recorded during the Great Famine, which lasted for at least a decade. According to Lamb (1966)’s report, the growing season varied by 15% to 20% between the warmest and coldest times of the millennium. This is fairly enough to adversely influence any type of food production. Without modern technology, such as protection of warm house, seeds especially those highly adapted to warm conditions, could hardly survive this change. In order to adapt increasingly unpredictable climates, farmers begun to experiment with new agricultural techniques and equipment (J. Cohen, 2012). This led to the Agriculture Revolution in Europe. In addition, the LIA also caused significant effect on economy, especially in Europe. Because of the Great Famine, heavy storms and growing glaciers, a large area of farmland was destroyed, which led to decreased tax revenue collected (Lamb,1995). Maritime activities were also limited by expanding glaciers, which caused a huge impact to the fishery and oversea trading (Lamb,1995).Miners lost their jobs due to the advancing glaciers as well. (Bryson, 1977.) However, not all of those influences were bad. One of the four greatest fisheries in the world, the fishery along the Newfoundland coast, was founded by fishermen who were looking for new fish stocks in result of the movement of colder water (Lamb, 1995). The LIA also brought great politic change to both western and oriental world. In China, the LIA made most of the participation shift towards south. This caused frequent droughts all over the provinces of China. The most severe one of them lasted for at least seventy years. Along with several massive earthquakes happening at the same time, this huge but declining agricultural country was finally defeated by corrupted bureaucracy and the Manchurian invaders from the northeast, who took advantage of the power vacuum and crossed the Great Wall, later on established the Qing Dynasty (Kezhen Zhu, 1972) In west Europe, â€Å"as the 18th century drew to a close, two decades of poor cereal harvests, drought, cattle disease and skyrocketing bread prices had kindled unrest among peasants and the urban poor in France.† (J. Cohen, 2012) Many people who managed to express their disaffection yet failed eventually decided to rise up and fight the government which imposed heavy taxes. Therefore, the brewing storm broke in 1789, while the French Revolution incurred. Many historians believe that that was somehow connected to the LIA. Although a large amount of evidences indicate that the LIA actually influenced ancient civilizations in various ways, there are still arguments disapproving this opinion. The theory which explains human history as an outcome of effects from geographical factors, or â€Å"human habits and characteristics of a particular culture are shaped by geographical conditions† as the dictionary explains, is called geographical determinism. Criticisms point out that the theory exaggerates the effect of natural environment on the development of human society. It is obviously incorrect to substitute natural law for social law. The geographical environment is one of necessary external conditions for human society to develop, admittedly, it affects considerably society as well. Nevertheless, it is absolutely not the determinant of development of human society. In fact, its effect may decrease as the human society goes forward. Other criticisms focus on the explanation that historical events are considered as inevitable trend or irresistible outcome of some natural factors. For example, they think that it’s unreasonable to impute the collapse of Ming Dynasty of China to the little ice age alone. The corrosion of government and bureaucracy along with the policy of seclusion which caused the stagnation of technology development, are also critical reasons for the declination of China (Calebjael, 2014). In conclusion, history is a long and complicated story written by every person, every movement, everything which has ever existed in the past time. Geographical factors, such as the presence of little ice age, will inevitably play an essential role in the history, especially in the ancient time. Today, our developments on technology allow us to do whatever we want to do, in spite of the nature. However, it takes price. Our achievement today mostly depends on what the nature gave to our ancestors. We should learn with respect what our ancestors encountered and how they dealt with them, what lesson they did take and what we should do in the future. The little ice age influenced human beings’ society from aspects including agriculture, economics, politics and cultures, etc. and therefore determined the life today to some extent. Our thoughts should be never limited in the little ice age. There are so many other geographical factors and historical events awaiting for us to explore . The attempt of discovering our history never ends. Reference List: Albion C. 2014. Impact of The Little Ice Age in Europe. Accessed on 28 June, 2015. Available from http://www.theapricity.com/forum/showthread.php?36426-Impact-of-The-Little-Ice-Age-in-Europe Brian M. Fagan 2000. The Little Ice Age: How Climate Made History, 1300-1850. Publisher: Basic Books Imbrie J.; Imbrie K.P (1979). Ice ages: solving the mystery. Short Hills NJ: Enslow Publishers. ISBN 978-0-89490-015-0. Accessed on 20 April 2015. Jennie Cohen 2012. Little Ice Age, Big Consequences. Accessed on 15 March, 2015. Available from http://www.history.com/news/little-ice-age-big-consequences Jonathan Cowie 2007.Climate change: biological and human aspects. Publisher: Cambridge University Press Kelly Morgan, 2010 The economic impact of the little ice age. Accessed on 20 April 2015. Available from http://researchrepository.ucd.ie/handle/10197/2649 K. Kris Hirst,2010 The Little Ice Age and Polynyas. Accessed on 20 April 2015. Available from http://archaeology.about.com/od/arctic/fl/The-Little-Ice-Age-How-Human-Cultures-Respond-to-Climate-Change_2.htm Peter J. Robinson 2005. The Little Ice Age, Ca. 1300 – 1870. Accessed on 16 March, 2015. Available from http://www.eh-resources.org/timeline/timeline_lia.html Scott A. Mandia, 2010 The Little Ice Age in Europe. Accessed on 20 April, 2015. Available from http://www2.sunysuffolk.edu/mandias/lia/little_ice_age.html

Plagiarism and the Internet :: Free Essays Online

Plagiarism and the Internet Plagiarism is a form of theft in which someone not only steals someone elseà °s words or ideas but pretends that they invented them. Plagiarism can result in lawsuits when copyrights are violated, such as in the case of 2 Live Crew who used a Roy Orbison song without consent of the copyright owner. The lines that draw this plagiarism trap are sometimes obscured, but are clearly articulated in resources such as The Hamilton College Honor Code. If instructors assign readings such as these, students will be without excuse for this common form of cheating. With the tools of today as given by the Internet, students have more information at their fingertips than ever before. Information and sources are easily acquired and many web sites are even open strictly for the use of plagiarizing, providing essays and reports students can copy. Teachers and professors could frustrate themselves by trying to find which particular website a student used to plagiarize. Surveys reflect the high percentage of exasperated teachers who feel defeated in this war against plagiarism (www.plagiarism.org/plagiarism_stats.html, p. 1 of 2). Can students act to remedy this problem? They can wage war against the websites that aid students in cheating by trying to expose them to higher authorities. This may lead to the closer observance of the forming of these websites and considerably lessen that form of plagiarizing. Teachers and professors could tailor writing assignments to make it harder to be plagiarized or put more of the weight of the grade on in-class testing. This particular writing assignment might be hard to plagiarize because it had specified topics with three issues to be addressed in relation to one another. Perhaps creative assignments would aid in the fight. Finally, students with

Setting as a Clarification of Motives in Hedda Gabler

Setting as a Clarification of Motives in Hedda Gabler Henrik Ibsen centralizes one of his most renowned plays, Hedda Gabler, around an upper-class housewife, and the complexities behind her seemingly average life. The title character finds herself in conditions that would be highly sought after by most young women of the nineteenth century: in a seemingly stable marriage with a comfortable home, and significantly more freedom than most females were offered within the context of the play.For this reason, Hedda’s tragic suicide comes as a surprise, and is often considered to be incomprehensible and unjustifiable in the minds of audience members. That being said, Ibsen clarifies Hedda’s motives by using the play’s setting to offer hints and explanation regarding the character’s condition as well as the factors that make her a victim of society.By understanding Ibsen’s use of the broader setting of nineteenth century Norway, as well as the smaller and m ore detailed setting on stage, one can in turn begin to understand the reasoning behind Hedda’s final impassioned decision and the events leading up to the play’s tragic conclusion. The nineteenth century was a time of patriarchal dominance, which is the foundation beneath most of Hedda’s internal conflict. Being raised by her father as a young girl, Hedda was treated more like a son than a daughter, and therefore able to enjoy freedoms that were typically reserved for males of the time.In the first scene of the play, Miss Tesman brings attention to this fact by exclaiming, â€Å"what a life she had in the general’s day! † (Ibsen 201) and remembering the days when Hedda would ride horses with General Gabler, â€Å"galloping past† (201), rather than trotting as would be customary for young women of the era. When Hedda agrees to marry George Tesman, she sacrifices this liberty of gender ambiguity, and confines herself to the societal restricti ons of the time.Nevertheless, although Hedda displays an outward compliance to the female expectations of the time, inwardly, Hedda rejects the idea of being dominated by a husband, which manifests in her passive aggression towards George. Ibsen underscores this idea even further through the title of the play, â€Å"Hedda Gabler†, which uses the woman’s maiden name, indicating that she remains attached to a time when her father was the only man in her life. Notwithstanding these social restraints, the hindrances to Hedda’s liberty cannot solely be blamed on the 1879 setting.Rather, the confines placed upon Hedda by societal expectations are compounded and made increasingly restricting by the woman’s own obsession with maintaining outer appearances and social mores. Should she choose to, Hedda could leave her husband like Mrs. Elvested to pursue her own idea of happiness, but in doing so, the protagonist would sacrifice her social standing and image as a w ell-esteemed and proper wife. With that, she decides to enshroud her life in a facade at the expense of her contentment.The threat of this mask of grace being removed, which would result in her becoming an outcast of nineteenth century society, becomes one of the deciding factors in Hedda’s suicide. To elaborate, in her twisted hunt for â€Å"†¦something spontaneous and beautiful† (Ibsen 118), Hedda sets out like a venomous arachnid, weaving web after web of conflict and deception to amuse herself, while maintaining an outward impression of integrity. This disguise becomes endangered when Judge Brack becomes privy to Hedda’s malicious behaviour and her role in Lovborg’s suicide, then threatening to expose her should she not surrender to his chokehold of power.Due to the social conditions of the Norwegian setting, Hedda is provided with two options, to become an even greater victim of female repression under the hands of Judge Brack, or to be banished by the upper-class society that is so vital to existence. In a more contemporary time, alternative options would be available to the protagonist due to the equality with which women are now perceived, and the social acceptance of independent females in the present day. Contrarily, in the sphere of the play’s context, Hedda is faced with the fact that the only way to avoid relinquishing all control over her life is to end it by her own hand.This notion alone shows the significance that time and setting have on the character’s actions, as it is arguable that if the play were to take place in the twenty-first century, the relevance of Hedda’s actions would be entirely lost, based upon the liberties and opportunities that would be available to her in today’s society. In addition to utilizing setting to establish the social circumstances affecting Hedda, Ibsen also offers descriptions regarding scenic design and stage directions to reveal information concerni ng the title character’s sense of inner conflict. Firstly, a great deal of significance arises from he fact Ibsen contains the play’s action within the Tesman’s small drawing room, a very deliberate and strategic choice of setting in terms of character development. As the piece progresses, it becomes increasingly apparent through the setting and the young woman’s interactions with it, that the drawing room contains Hedda’s life, both literally and metaphorically in some senses. Within this room, she is able to deny her present circumstances by detaching herself from the outside world. Hedda’s interactions with the set reinforce this idea, particularly when she orders George to draw the curtains due to the sunlight.By including this action in his work, Ibsen physically dims the stage, representative of the darkness with which Hedda masks her life, while also reflecting the dominant position she holds in her marriage by having George perform a task that would typically be viewed as woman’s work within the world of the play. All things considered, while the drawing room is in fact a representation of the control and freedom in Hedda’s life, it also serves as a simultaneous, albeit paradoxical, symbol of imprisonment. Within its four walls, Hedda is able to ignore the outside world.That being said, the drawing room and its contents also represent the suffocating aristocratic life that the young woman struggles to maintain despite its smothering effects. The conflicted relationship that the woman has with the room and her identity is illustrated when Hedda makes reference to yet another set piece: the piano. Although she acknowledges that the instrument â€Å"doesn’t really fit in with all [the] other things [in the room]† (Ibsen 208), Hedda declares that she is unwilling to part with it when Tesman suggests trading it in for a new piano.Rather, she suggests moving it to the inner room, and getti ng â€Å"another here in its place† (208). Through her relationship with this object, Ibsen again demonstrates the conflict that Hedda experiences as she attempts to replace the ways of her past with her new aristocratic identity, while still clinging onto fragments of her old life. Ultimately, it is this paradoxical state of being that leads to the title character’s unwinding. Unable to find a middle ground in her life, Hedda comes to understand that the only way to avoid trading either her inner or outer desires for the other, is to take complete control of her life by sacrificing both.Despite the aforesaid arguments, some audience members and critics may still consider Hedda’s suicide, as well as the actions leading up to it, to be unwarranted acts of selfishness. That being said, regardless of whether or not one chooses to approve of Hedda’s choices, it is undebatable that Ibsen at the very least succeeds in clarifying the motives behind her decisions , particularly her sense of inescapable imprisonment. Ibsen manages to achieve this feat largely through the precision with which he makes use of the play’s setting.With that, it is inarguable that without the foundation of nineteenth century society and the choices made by Ibsen regarding stage design, the pieces of Hedda’s story would remain fragmented to audiences, and the intense torment leading to the title character’s final breath would be left unexposed. Works Cited Ibsen, Henrik. Hedda Gabler. Trans. Rolf Fjelde. The Norton Anthology of Drama, Volume Two: The Nineteenth Century to the Present. J. Ellen Gainor, Stanton B. Garner Jr. and Martin Puchner. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2009. 200-254.

Congress Study Guide Essay

1.What is the paradox regarding Congress and public opinion? Congress is considered by many to be the system’s broken branch. It has probably been the object of more mass public distrust and more elite reform proposals than either the presidency or the federal judiciary combined. This is true although most incumbent members usually win re-election and congress has consistently expanded programs and adopted policies that most citizens favor. 2. How does the book describe partisan polarization in Congress? What is the explanation for why Congress today seems more polarized than it die up until the 1970s? The book describes partisan polarization as a vote in which a majority of voting democrats oppose a majority of voting republicans. Congress today seems more polarized than it was up until the 1970s because of social issues such as abortion. Democrats tends to be more liberal and republicans more conservative. 3. Summarize the differences between Congress and a parliament and ho w these fundamental differences influence the character of the U.S. Congress.What were the main issues in the development of the Senate and how were these issues settled? Make sure that you understand what these terms refer to: filibuster, cloture, Rule 22. A person becomes a candidate for representative or senator in the U.S. Congress by running in a primary election. Except in a few places, political parties exercise little control over the choice over who is nominated to run for congressional office. Voters select candidates in the primaries because of their personalities, positions on issues, or overall reputation. Parliament tends to be made up of people loyal to the national party issues. A congress tends to be made up of people who think of themselves as independent representatives of their districts who expect to vote as to their own constituents. Filibuster: The use of the Senate’s tradition of unlimited debate as a delaying tactic to block a bill. Cloture: shuts of the discussion on a bill.Rule 22: debate may be closed of on a bill if 16 senators sign a petition requesting it and if, after two days have elapsed, three-fifths of the entire membership vote for cloture. 4)Why is Congress a decentralized institution and why is Congress inevitably unpopular with voters. Members of Congress are more concerned with their own constituents and careers than with the interests of any organized party or program of  action. Congress doesn’t choose the president, they know that worrying about the voters they represent is much more important than worrying about whether the president succeed with his programs. Congress must worry about how voters feel, it’s inevitable that on controversial issues that Congress will engage in endless arguments, worry about interest groups, and work out compromise decisions. 5) Read through the six phases of the House of Representatives so that you are clear about the rules changes and the balance of power between the Speaker and committee chairmen. Briefly summarize phases five-six. (It is not important for you to learn the name of individual Speakers except for Newt Gingrich – unless you want to be a history major or quiz bowl whiz.) Phase 1- the powerful house – 1789-1820-under Washington’s administration the house was more powerful than the Senate, but still answered to Washington’s cabinet. Phase 2-The Divided House- 1820-1890- Jackson asserted his power over the house. Sectional tensions leading up to the civil war the House was again divided between Radical Republicans and Moderates and different opinions on Reconstruction. Phase 3- The Speaker rules- 1890-1910 GOP Thomas Reed, Speaker of the House obtained the power to name chairpersons. He decides what business would come up for vote. Phase 4- The House Revolts- 1910- 1911 Cannon replaces Reed as the Speaker but the House revolts against him. The Speaker can no longer name committee chairpersons or serve on the rules committee. The powers were given to Party Caucus. Phase 5 -The Members Rule- 1911-1965-Democrats take control of the House. Chairpersons kept civil rights from happening. Eventually, the committee rebelled. Phase 6 -The Leadership Returns- 1965-Present. Newt Gingrich takes power back from the House and gives it to himself as a speaker. Although voted on by Party Caucus, he dominated choices of the committee chairperson. 6) How has the history and structure of the Senate meant that it would be different from the House of Representatives? The Framers chose to create a bicameral legislature—with a House of Representatives, to be elected directly by the people, and a Senate, consisting of two members from each state, to be chosen by the legislatures of each state. Though all â€Å"legislative powers† were to be vested in Congress, those powers would be shared with the president, limited to powers explicitly conferred on the federal government, and subject to the power of the Supreme Court to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional. 7) What were the main issues in the development of the Senate and how were these issues settled? Make sure that you understand what these terms refer to: filibuster, cloture, Rule 22. The larger more populous states wanted a senate based on population. Of course the smaller states objected because they would have been severely outnumbered. So both sides compromised and made the House of Representatives (by population) and the Senate (everyone has 2 representatives) together these two bodies make up. Ben Franklin came up with the idea for Senate as a means of satisfying the small states. Filibuster: The use of the Senate’s tradition of unlimited debate as a delaying tactic to block a bill. Cloture: shuts of the discussion on a bill.Rule 22: debate may be closed of on a bill if 16 senators sign a petition requesting it and if, after two days have elapsed, 3/5 of the entire membership vote for cloture. 8)Summarize the points that Edmund Burke made in his speech to the Bristol Electors about the responsibilities of a representative to his constituents. He basically said that a representative should have good judgment and should be sacrificial to his constituents. He should also respect the opinions of his constituents and to always listen to the people’s problems. 9) Briefly summarize the trends in the sex and race of members of Congress. The House has become less male and less white since the 1950s. The Senate has been slower to change. In addition, Republican control of both houses prior to the midterm election of 2006 had reduced minority influence. How ever, the recent shift of control of both chambers to the Democrats resulted in African Americans and Hispanics becoming chairpersons of several important committees. 10) Why have more congressional districts become safer for incumbent reelection? Incumbents, with support and privileges of their status (such as franking privileges) have developed ways to make themselves popular by: using the mass media, making personal appearances with constituents, and sending newsletters, etc. These efforts have made more and more congressional districts become safer for incumbent re-election. 11) What are the possible explanations for why the Democrats dominated Congress from 1933-1994? Democrats tend to dominate Congress. This is mostly because Democrats tend to do better in low-turnout districts, while the Republicans do well in high-turnout districts. The advantages of incumbency became more pronounced during a time when Democrats controlled the Congress. Democrats generally  have more experienced congressional candidates, have more closely reflected district-level voters’ rights policy preferences, and have been able to fashion winning,district-lev el coalitions from among national Democratic constituencies. Democrats were the majority party in Congress when this happened. The anti-incumbent mood, coupled with the effects of redistricting after the 1990 census and the shift of the South to the Republican party, brought the Republicans into power in the House and Senate in the 1994 elections. In the past the Democratic party was more deeply divided than the Republicans, because of the presence in Congress of conservative Democrats from the South. Often these southern Democrats would vote with Republicans, thereby forming a conservative coalition 12)Why has Congress become more ideologically partisan since the 1980s? It has become more polarized than voters in terms of political beliefs. One result of this polarization is that members of Congress, especially those in the House, do not get along as well as they once did with members who disagree with them, and they are more likely to challenge one another 13) Summarize the three theories of how members of Congress behave. There are three theories about how members of Congress behave: representational, org anizational, and attitudinal. The representational explanation is based on the assumption that members want to be reelected, and therefore they vote to please constituents. The organizational explanation is based on the assumption that since constituents do not know how their legislator has voted, it is not important to please them. But it is important to please fellow members of Congress, whose goodwill is valuable in getting things done and in acquiring status and power in Congress. The attitudinal explanation is based on the assumption that there are so many conflicting pressures on members of Congress that they cancel each other out, leaving them virtually free to vote on the basis of their own beliefs. 14.Define malapportionment and gerrymandering. From the online article on Gerrymandering 101, summarize what Minority Gerrymandering and packing are. Malapportionment- drawing the boundaries of political districts so that districts are very unequal in population. Gerrymandering- drawing the boundaries of political districts in bizarre or unusual shapes to make it easy for candidates of the party in power to win elections in those districts Packing is to concentrate as many voters of one type into a single electoral district to reduce their  influence in other districts. 15.What is the sophomore surge? Why does it happen? What effects does it have? Sophomore surge is where the most newly elected members become strong in their districts very quickly. The reason for this surge is that members of Congress have figured out how to use their offices to run personal rather than party campaigns. They make use of their free privileges. They also cater to their constituent’s distrust of federal gov’t by promising to â€Å"clean things up†if reelected. If re-elected, they run for congress by running against it. 16.Summarize the issues involved and the resolution in Baker v. Carr and Wesberry v. Sanders Both Wesberry and Reynoldsdecisions were predicated on the landmark ruling in Baker v. Carr,369 US 186 (1962), in which the US Supreme Court decided reapportionment of state legislative districts was not a â€Å"political question† that should be resolved through legislation. The Court found legislative conflicts of interest raised justiciable issues that could be addressed and resolved by the Federal courts. 17)What are the principal jobs and responsibilities in the party leadership in the Senate? The majority party chooses one of its members usually the person with the greatest seniority to be president of the Senate. It is largely an honorific posit ion, required by the Constitution so that the Senate will have a presiding officer in the absence of the vice president of the United States. The real leadership is the hands of the majority leader (chosen by the senators of the majority party) and the minority leader (chosen by the senators of the other party). The senators of each party also elect a whip. The principal task of the majority leader is to schedule the business of the Senate. He has the right to be recognized first in any floor debate. The whip is a senator who helps the party leader stay informed about what party members are thinking, rounds up members when important votes are to be taken, and attempts to keep a nose count on how the voting on a controversial issue is likely to go. Each party also chooses a Policy Committee composed of a dozen senators who help the party leader schedule Senate business, choosing what bills are to be given attention and in what order. From the point of view of individual senators, the key party organization is the group that assigns senators to the standing committees of the Senate. These assignments are very important to newly elected senator. 18) What are the formal and informal powers of the Speaker of the  House? The Speaker is the most important person in the House. He is elected by whichever party has the majority, and he presides over all House meetings. He is the principal leader of the majority party as well as the presiding officer of the entire House. The Speaker decides who shall be recognized to speak on the floor of the House; he rules whether a motion is relevant; and he decides the committees to which new bills shall be assigned. He influences what bills are brought up for a vote and appoints the members of special and select committees.